Being Human: Readings from the President's Council on Bioethics
Chapter 7: Why Not Immortality?
Introduction
In the previous chapter, we saw how renewal-having children-is
one response to our finitude. Another response, though, would
be to conquer the effects of time and continue life, either
much longer than is now possible, or even indefinitely. For
this-for immortality-human beings have longed since the beginning
of recorded history, and for all we know, longer. For many,
this longing is to be satisfied in a promised life hereafter.
For many others, it is to be satisfied here on earth, by means
of technological progress.
Just how far biomedical technology can take us in the direction
of bodily immortality remains to be seen. Yet we need not
wait for this promise to mature to consider what it would
mean to live forever, or even just to live significantly longer
than we do now. Our present lives are largely defined by our
awareness that we will die, and die some time within the approximately
four-score limit natural to our species. How might unending
life, or even significantly longer life, affect us? Would
it make a difference whether we continued to age, or remained
youthful in our additional years? And what about our children?
How would our own immortality, or the great lengthening of
the lives we live now, affect our relations with those we
expect to follow us? Surely the intergenerational effects
of profound changes in the human lifespan would go beyond
costlier Social Security payrolls.
Our readings in this chapter consider all these questions
and more. They begin, appropriately, with a direct consideration
of the existential problem. In our first excerpt, the hero
of Homer's Odyssey confronts a stark choice between
human life and immortality in paradise. What might human life-with
its perils, shortcomings, and culmination in the grave-have
to place on the scales against deathless perfection? In our
second excerpt, from the Book of Revelation, we are
shown a competing vision: a glimpse of heaven, presented as
a new Jerusalem, in which death itself has passed away and
all human suffering is redeemed.
Our next three excerpts address the fear of death. First,
the Roman poet Lucretius, consistent with his materialist
philosophy, attempts to dispose of the fear of death by confronting
the facts about it, in an excerpt from On the Nature of
Things. Next, Francis Bacon attempts the same task but
goes further, adding reasons why one might welcome death.
In the last of these three, a letter by the Stoic philosopher
Seneca offers advice on preparing oneself mentally to "[meet]
death cheerfully."
Our next four excerpts consider immortality. First, an excerpt
from the ancient Epic of Gilgamesh features a hero
who travels to the land of the gods in search of endless life.
There he is counseled to abandon his quest in favor of a finite
human life. Next, the hero of Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's
Travels discovers a land where some do live forever, and
is disabused of his notions about what such a life might be
like. After this, the heroine of a contemporary children's
novel, Tuck Everlasting, meets a family of immortals
who both differ from and resemble Swift's. Finally, modernist
American poet e. e. cummings celebrates a naturalistic view
of what it might mean to live forever.
We conclude with five meditations on death itself. Philosopher
Hans Jonas begins these readings with his essay on "The Burden
and Blessing of Mortality." Next, Mark Twain, in the final
chapter of his Autobiography, is compelled by the loss
of a beloved child to confront death squarely for what it
is; his judgment of it may surprise readers. In two famous
poems-"Fern Hill" and "Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night"-Welsh
poet Dylan Thomas ponders the postures toward mortality typical
of the young and the old. Three classical Japanese poets-Murasaki
Shikibu, Sôku, and Dogen-consider the relationship between
death and beauty. Lastly, William Shakespeare, in his twelfth
sonnet, questions whether that which is destined to die can
be beautiful at all, and identifies only one "defense" against
"Time's scythe."
***
Excerpt from
Gulliver's Travels
by Jonathan Swift
In Jonathan Swift's best-known novel,
the protagonist, Gulliver, recalls his travels to fantastical
foreign lands. In the following excerpt, Gulliver recounts
his visit to Luggnagg, where every few years a child is
born with a distinctive mark that signifies he or she will
never die.
Until he went to Luggnagg, Gulliver
had regarded death as "the universal calamity of human nature."
This view changes when he learns the truth about the immortal
"struldbrugs."
When Gulliver first learns about the
struldbrugs from mortal Luggnaggians, he is "struck with
inexpressible delight." Prompted by them to describe how
he would have lived, had he been one, he imagines perpetual
study, ever-growing wisdom, service to humanity, and the
comfortable fellowship of his own kind. His interlocutors
laugh and set him straight. Though they are immortal, the
struldbruggs enjoy neither perpetual youth nor perpetual
prosperity and health. They live anything but enviable lives.
When Gulliver imagines himself as an
immortal, he sees himself growing to accept the ongoing
loss of mortal acquaintances with as little regret as mortals
feel for the withering of annual flowers. He also sees himself
remaining engaged in solving the problems of the human race.
Is he realistic in imagining that these two attitudes could
coexist?
Were the struldbrugs to remain healthy
and prosperous as they aged, would they necessarily be happy?
Does Gulliver's interpreter fully understand what ails them?
Marriages among struldbruggs are dissolved
when the spouses reach eighty, and the only mention made
of the children of these marriages is that they take their
inheritances at that time (and are themselves likely to
be mortal). What might the experiences of the struldbrugs
suggest about the relation between marriage, children, and
mortality?
Mortal Luggnaggians are human; are
the struldbrugs? If not, what crucial human attributes do
they lack?
***
The Luggnaggians are a polite and generous people, and although
they are not without some share of that pride which is peculiar
to all eastern countries, yet they shew themselves courteous
to strangers, especially such who are countenanced by the
court. I had many acquaintances among persons of the best
fashion, and being always attended by my interpreter, the
conversation we had was not disagreeable.
One day, in much good company, I was asked by a person of
quality, whether I had seen any of their struldbrugs, or immortals.
I said I had not; and desired he would explain to me what
he meant by such an appellation, applied to a mortal creature.
He told me, that sometimes, though very rarely, a child happened
to be born in a family with a red circular spot in the forehead,
directly over the left eye-brow, which was an infallible mark
that it should never die. The spot, as he described it, was
about the compass of a silver three-pence, but in the course
of time grew larger, and changed its colour; for at twelve
years old it became green, so continued till five and twenty,
then turned to a deep blue; at five and forty it grew coal
black, and as large as an English shilling; but never admitted
any farther alteration. He said these births were so rare,
that he did not believe there could be above eleven hundred
struldbrugs of both sexes in the whole kingdom, of which he
computed about fifty in the metropolis, and, among the rest,
a young girl born, about three years ago; that these productions
were not peculiar to any family, but a mere effect of chance;
and the children of the struldbrugs themselves were equally
mortal with the rest of the people.
I freely own myself to have been struck with inexpressible
delight upon hearing this account: and the person who gave
it me happening to understand the Balnibarbian language, which
I spoke very well, I could not forbear breaking out into expressions,
perhaps a little too extravagant. I cried out as in a rapture:
"Happy nation, where every child hath at least a chance of
being immortal! Happy people, who enjoy so many living examples
of ancient virtue, and have masters ready to instruct them
in the wisdom of all former ages! But happiest beyond all
comparison are those excellent struldbrugs, who, born exempt
from that universal calamity of human nature, have their minds
free and disengaged, without the weight and depression of
spirits caused by the continual apprehension of death." I
discovered my admiration that I had not observed any of these
illustrious persons at court; the black spot on the forehead
being so remarkable a distinction, that I could not have easily
overlooked it; and it was impossible that his Majesty, a most
judicious prince, should not provide himself with a good number
of such wise and able councilors. Yet perhaps the virtue of
those reverend sages was too strict for the corrupt and libertine
manners of a court. And we often find by experience, that
young men are too opinionative and volatile to be guided by
the sober dictates of their seniors. However, since the king
was pleased to allow me access to his royal person, I was
resolved, upon the very first occasion, to deliver my opinion
to him on this matter freely, and at large, by the help of
my interpreter; and whether he would please to take my advice
or no, yet in one thing I was determined, that, his Majesty
having frequently offered me an establishment in this country,
I would with great thankfulness accept the favour, and pass
my life here in the conversation of those superior beings,
the struldbrugs, if they would please to admit me.
The gentlemen to whom I addressed my discourse, because
(as I have already observed) he spoke the language of Balnibarbi,
said to me with a sort of a smile, which usually ariseth from
pity to the ignorant, that he was glad of any occasion to
keep me among them, and desired my permission to explain to
the company what I had spoke. He did so, and they talked together
for some time in their own language, whereof I understood
not a syllable, neither could I observe by their countenances,
what impression my discourse had made on them. After a short
silence, the same person told me, that his friends and mine
(so he thought fit to express himself) were very much pleased
with the judicious remarks I had made on the great happiness
and advantages of immortal life, and they were desirous to
know in a particular manner, what scheme of living I should
have formed to myself, if it had fallen to my lot to have
been born a struldbrug.
I answered, it was easy to be eloquent on so copious and
delightful a subject, especially to me, who have been often
apt to amuse myself with visions of what I should do, if I
were a king, a general, or a great lord: and, upon this very
case, I had frequently run over the whole system how I should
employ myself, and pass the time, if I were sure to live for
ever.
That, if it had been my good fortune to come into the world
a struldbrug, as soon as I could discover my own happiness,
by understanding the difference between life and death, I
would first resolve, by all arts and methods whatsoever, to
procure myself riches. In the pursuit of which, by thrift
and management, I might reasonably expect, in about two hundred
years, to be the wealthiest man in the kingdom. In the second
place, I would from my earliest youth apply myself to the
study of arts and sciences, by which I should arrive in time
to excel all others in learning. Lastly, I would carefully
record every action and event of consequence that happened
in the public, impartially draw the characters of the several
successions of princes, and great ministers of state, with
my own observations on every point. I would exactly set down
the several changes in customs, language, fashions of dress,
diet and diversions. By all which acquirements, I should be
a living treasury of knowledge and wisdom, and certainly become
the oracle of the nation.
I would never marry after threescore, but live in an hospitable
manner, yet still on the saving side. I would entertain myself
in forming and directing the minds of hopeful young men, by
convincing them from my own remembrance, experience and observation,
fortified by numerous examples, of the usefulness of virtue
in public and private life. But my choice and constant companions
should be a set of my own immortal brotherhood, among whom
I would elect a dozen from the most ancient, down to my own
contemporaries. Where any of these wanted fortunes, I would
provide them with convenient lodges round my own estate, and
have some of them always at my table, only mingling a few
of the most valuable among you mortals, whom length of time
would harden me to lose, with little or no reluctance, and
treat your posterity after the same manner; just as a man
diverts himself with the annual succession of pinks and tulips
in his garden, without regretting the loss of those which
withered the preceding year.
These struldbrugs and I would mutually communicate our observations
and memorials through the course of time; remark the several
gradations by which corruption steals into the world, and
oppose it in every step, by giving perpetual warning and instruction
to mankind; which, added to the strong influence of our own
example, would probably prevent that continual degeneracy
of human nature, so justly complained of in all ages.
Add to all this, the pleasure of seeing the various revolutions
of states and empires; the changes in the lower and upper
world; ancient cities in ruins, and obscure villages become
the seats of kings; famous rivers lessening into shallow brooks;
the ocean leaving one coast dry, and overwhelming another;
the discovery of many countries yet unknown; barbarity over-running
the politest nations, and the most barbarous become civilized.
I should then see the discovery of the longitude, the perpetual
motion, the universal medicine, and many other great inventions
brought to the utmost perfection.
What wonderful discoveries should we make in astronomy,
by out-living and confirming our own predictions, by observing
the progress and return of comets, with the changes of motion
in the sun, moon, and stars.
I enlarged upon many other topics, which the natural desire
of endless life and sublunary happiness could easily furnish
me with. When I had ended, and the sum of my discourse had
been interpreted, as before, to the rest of the company, there
was a good deal of talk among them in the language of the
country, not without some laughter at my expense. At last,
the same gentleman who had been my interpreter said he was
desired by the rest to set me right in a few mistakes, which
I had fallen into through the common imbecility of human nature,
and, upon that allowance, was less answerable for them. That
this breed of struldbrugs was peculiar to their country, for
there were no such people, either in Balnibarbi or Japan,
where he had the honour to be ambassador from his Majesty,
and found the natives in both those kingdoms very hard to
believe that the fact was possible; and it appeared from my
astonishment, when he first mentioned the matter to me, that
I received it as a thing wholly new, and scarcely to be credited.
That in the two kingdoms above mentioned, where, during his
residence, he had conversed very much, he observed long life
to be the universal desire and wish of mankind. That whoever
had one foot in the grave, was sure to hold back the other
as strongly as he could. That the oldest had still hopes of
living one day longer, and looked on death as the greatest
evil, from which Nature always prompted him to retreat; only
in this island of Luggnagg the appetite for living was not
so eager, from the continual example of the struldbrugs before
their eyes.
That the system of living, contrived by me, was unreasonable
and unjust, because it supposed a perpetuity of youth, health,
and vigour, which no man could be so foolish to hope, however
extravagant he may be in his wishes. That the question therefore
was not whether a man would choose to be always in the prime
of youth, attended with prosperity and health; but how he
would pass a perpetual life under all the usual disadvantages
which old age brings along with it. For although few men will
avow their desires of being immortal upon such hard conditions,
yet in the two kingdoms before mentioned, of Balnibarbi and
Japan he observed that every man desired to put off death
for some time longer, let it approach ever so late; and he
rarely heard of any man who died willingly, except he were
incited by the extremity of grief or torture. And he appealed
to me, whether in those countries I had travelled, as well
as my own, I had not observed the same general disposition.
After this preface, he gave me a particular account of the
struldbrugs among them. He said they commonly acted like mortals,
till about thirty years old, after which, by degrees, they
grew melancholy and dejected, increasing in both till they
came to fourscore. This he learned from their own confession;
for otherwise, there not being above two or three of that
species born in an age, they were too few to form a general
observation by. When they came to fourscore years, which is
reckoned the extremity of living in this country, they had
not only all the follies and infirmities of other old men,
but many more, which arose from the dreadful prospects of
never dying. They were not only opinionative, peevish, covetous,
morose, vain, talkative; but incapable of friendship, and
dead to all natural affection, which never descended below
their grandchildren. Envy and impotent desires are their prevailing
passions. But those objects, against which their envy seems
principally directed, are the vices of the younger sort, and
the deaths of the old. By reflecting on the former, they find
themselves cut off from all possibility of pleasure; and whenever
they see a funeral, they lament and repine that others are
gone to an harbour of rest, to which they themselves never
can hope to arrive. They have no remembrance of anything but
what they learned and observed in their youth and middle age,
and even that is very imperfect. And, for the truth or particulars
of any fact, it is safer to depend on common traditions, than
upon their best recollections. The least miserable among them
appear to be those who turn to dotage, and entirely lose their
memories; these meet with more pity and assistance, because
they want many bad qualities, which abound in others.
If a struldbrug happen to marry one of his own kind, the
marriage is dissolved of course, by the courtesy of the kingdom,
as soon as the younger of the two comes to be fourscore. For
the law thinks it reasonable indulgence, that those who are
condemned, without any fault of their own, to a perpetual
continuance in the world, should not have their misery doubled
by the load of a wife.
As soon as they have completed the term of eighty years,
they are looked on as dead in law; their heirs immediately
succeed to their estates, only a small pittance is reserved
for their support; and the poor ones are maintained at the
public charge. After that period they are held incapable of
any employment of trust or profit, they cannot purchase lands,
or take leases, neither are they allowed to be witnesses in
any cause, either civil or criminal, not even for the decision
of meers and bounds.
At ninety they lose their teeth and hair; they have at that
age no distinction of taste, but eat and drink whatever they
can get, without relish or appetite. The diseases they were
subject to still continue, without increasing or diminishing.
In talking, they forget the common appellation of things,
and the names of persons, even of those who are their nearest
friends and relations. For the same reason they never can
amuse themselves with reading, because their memory will not
serve to carry them from the beginning of a sentence to the
end; and, by this defect, they are deprived of the only entertainment
whereof they might otherwise be capable.
The language of this country being always upon the flux,
the struldbrugs of one age do not understand those of another;
neither are they able, after two hundred years, to hold any
conversation (farther than by a few general words) with their
neighbours, the mortals; and thus they lie under the disadvantage
of living like foreigners in their own country.
This was the account given me of the struldbrugs, as near
as I can remember. I afterwards saw five or six of different
ages, the youngest not above two hundred years old, who were
brought to me at several times, by some of my friends; but
although they were told that I was a great traveller, and
had seen all the world, they had not the least curiosity to
ask me a question; only desired I would give them slumskudask,
or a token of remembrance; which is a modest way of begging,
to avoid the law that strictly forbids it, because they are
provided for by the public, although, indeed, with a very
scanty allowance.
They are despised and hated by all sorts of people; when
one of them is born, it is reckoned ominous, and their birth
is recorded very particularly; so that you may know their
age, by consulting the register; which, however, hath not
been kept above a thousand years past, or, at least, hath
been destroyed by time, or public disturbances. But the usual
way of computing how old they are, is, by asking them what
kings or great persons they can remember, and then consulting
history; for, infallibly, the last prince in their mind did
not begin his reign after they were fourscore years old.
They were the most mortifying sight I ever beheld; and the
women more horrible than the men. Besides the usual deformities
in extreme old age, they acquired an additional ghastliness,
in proportion to their number of years, which is not to be
described; and, among half a dozen, I soon distinguished which
was the eldest, although there was not above a century or
two between them.
The reader will easily believe that from what I had heard
and seen, my keen appetite for perpetuity of life was much
abated. I grew heartily ashamed of the pleasing visions I
had formed; and thought no tyrant could invent a death into
which I would not run with pleasure from such a life. The
king heard of all that had passed between me and my friends
upon this occasion, and rallied me very pleasantly; wishing
I would send a couple of struldbrugs to my own country, to
arm our people against the fear of death; but this, it seems,
is forbidden by the fundamental laws of the kingdom, or else
I should have been well content with the trouble and expense
of transporting them. I could not but agree that
the laws of this kingdom, relative to the struldbrugs, were
founded upon the strongest reasons, and such as any other
country would be under the necessity of enacting in the like
circumstances. Otherwise, as avarice is the necessary consequent
of old age, those immortals would in time become proprietors
of the whole nation, and engross the civil power; which, for
want of abilities to manage, must end in the ruin of the public.~
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