Oncogene: A gene, one or more forms of which is associated with cancer. Many oncogenes are involved, directly or indirectly, in controlling the rate of cell growth.
Overlapping clones: See genomic library.

P

PCR: See polymerase_chain reaction.
Phage: A virus for which the natural host is a bacterial cell.
Physical map: A map of the locations of identifiable landmarks on DNA (e.g., restriction enzyme cutting sites, genes), regardless of inheritance. Distance is measured in base pairs. For the human genome, the lowest-resolution physical map is the banding patterns on the 24 different chromosomes; the highest-resolution map would be the complete nucleotide sequence of the chromosomes.
Plasmid: Autonomously replicating, extrachromosomal circular DNA molecules, distinct from the normal bacterial genome and nonessential for cell survival under nonselective conditions. Some plasmids are capable of integrating into the host genome. A number of artificially constructed plasmids are used as cloning vectors.
Polygenic disorders: Genetic disorders resulting from the combined action of alleles of more than one gene (e.g., heart disease, diabetes, and some cancers). Although such disorders are inherited, they depend on the simultaneous presence of several alleles; thus the hereditary patterns are usually more complex than those of single-gene disorders. Compare single-gene disorders.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): A method for amplifying a DNA base sequence using a heat-stable polymerase and two 20-base primers, one complementary to the (+)-strand at one end of the sequence to be amplified and the other complementary to the (-)-strand at the other end. Because the newly synthesized DNA strands can subsequently serve as additional templates for the same primer sequences, successive rounds of primer annealing, strand elongation, and dissociation produce rapid and highly specific amplification of the desired sequence. PCR also can be used to detect the existence of the defined sequence in a DNA sample.
Polymerase, DNA or RNA: Enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of nucleic acids on preexisting nucleic acid templates, assembling RNA from ribonucleotides or DNA from deoxyribonucleotides.
Polymorphism: Difference in DNA sequence among individuals. Genetic variations occurring in more than 1% of a population would be considered useful polymorphisms for genetic linkage analysis. Compare mutation.
Primer: Short preexisting polynucleotide chain to which new deoxyribonucleotides can be added by DNA polymerase.
Probe: Single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules of specific base sequence, labeled either radioactively or immunologically, that are used to detect the complementary base sequence by hybridization.
Prokaryote: Cell or organism lacking a membrane-bound, structurally discrete nucleus and other subcellular compartments. Bacteria are prokaryotes. Compare eukaryote. See chromosomes.
Promoter: A site on DNA to which RNA polymerase will bind and initiate transcription.
Protein: A large molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order; the order is determined by the base sequence of nucleotides in the gene coding for the protein. Proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the bodys cells, tissues, and organs, and each protein has unique functions. Examples are hormones, enzymes, and antibodies.
Purine: A nitrogen-containing, single-ring, basic compound that occurs in nucleic acids. The purines in DNA and RNA are adenine and guanine.
Pyrimidine: A nitrogen-containing, double-ring, basic compound that occurs in nucleic acids. The pyrimidines in DNA are cytosine and thymine; in RNA, cytosine and uracil.

R

Rare-cutter enzyme: See restriction enzyme cutting site.
Recombinant clones: Clones containing recombinant DNA molecules. See recombinant DNA technologies.
Recombinant DNA molecules: A combination of DNA molecules of different origin that are joined using recombinant DNA technologies.
Recombinant DNA technologies: Procedures used to join together DNA segments in a cell-free system (an environment outside a cell or organism). Under appropriate conditions, a recombinant DNA molecule can enter a cell and replicate there, either autonomously or after it has become integrated into a cellular chromosome.
Recombination: The process by which progeny derive a combination of genes different from that of either parent. In higher organisms, this can occur by crossing over.
Regulatory regions or sequences: A DNA base sequence that controls gene expression.
Resolution: Degree of molecular detail on a physical map of DNA, ranging from low to high.
Restriction enzyme, endonuclease: A protein that recognizes specific, short nucleotide sequences and cuts DNA at those sites. Bacteria contain over 400 such enzymes that recognize and cut over 100 different DNA sequences. See restriction enzyme cutting site.
Restriction enzyme cutting site: A specific nucleotide sequence of DNA at which a particular restriction enzyme cuts the DNA. Some sites occur frequently in DNA (e.g., every several hundred base pairs), others much less frequently (rare-cutter; e.g., every 10,000 base pairs).
Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP): Variation between individuals in DNA fragment sizes cut by specific restriction enzymes; polymorphic sequences that result in RFLPs are used as markers on both physical maps and genetic linkage maps. RFLPs are usually caused by mutation at a cutting site. See marker.
RFLP: See restriction fragment length polymorphism.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA): A chemical found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of cells; it plays an important role in protein synthesis and other chemical activities of the cell. The structure of RNA is similar to that of DNA. There are several classes of RNA molecules, including messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, and other small RNAs, each serving a different purpose.
Ribonucleotides: See nucleotide.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): A class of RNA found in the ribosomes of cells.
Ribosomes: Small cellular components composed of specialized ribosomal RNA and protein; site of protein synthesis. See ribonucleic acid (RNA).
RNA: See ribonucleic acid.

S

Sequence: See base sequence.
Sequence tagged site (STS): Short (200 to 500 base pairs) DNA sequence that has a single occurrence in the human genome and whose location and base sequence are known. Detectable by polymerase chain reaction, STSs are useful for localizing and orienting the mapping and sequence data reported from many different laboratories and serve as landmarks on the developing physical map of the human genome. Expressed sequence tags (ESTs) are STSs derived from cDNAs.
Sequencing: Determination of the order of nucleotides (base sequences) in a DNA or RNA molecule or the order of amino acids in a protein.
Sex chromosomes: The X and Y chromosomes in human beings that determine the sex of an individual. Females have two X chromosomes in diploid cells; males have an X and a Y chromosome. The sex chromosomes comprise the 23rd chromosome pair in a karyotype. Compare autosome.
Shotgun method: Cloning of DNA fragments randomly generated from a genome. See library, genomic library.
Single-gene disorder: Hereditary disorder caused by a mutant allele of a single gene (e.g., Duchenne muscular dystrophy, retinoblastoma, sickle cell disease). Compare polygenic disorders.
Somatic cells: Any cell in the body except gametes and their precursors.
Southern blotting: Transfer by absorption of DNA fragments separated in electrophoretic gels to membrane filters for detection of specific base sequences by radiolabeled complementary probes.
STS: See sequence tagged site.

T

Tandem repeat sequences: Multiple copies of the same base sequence on a chromosome; used as a marker in physical mapping.
Technology transfer: The process of converting scientific findings from research laboratories into useful products by the commercial sector.
Telomere: The ends of chromosomes. These specialized structures are involved in the replication and stability of linear DNA molecules. See DNA replication.
Thymine (T): A nitrogenous base, one member of the base pair A-T (adenine-thymine).
Transcription: The synthesis of an RNA copy from a sequence of DNA (a gene); the first step in gene expression. Compare translation.
Transfer RNA (tRNA): A class of RNA having structures with triplet nucleotide sequences that are complementary to the triplet nucleotide coding sequences of mRNA. The role of tRNAs in protein synthesis is to bond with amino acids and transfer them to the ribosomes, where proteins are assembled according to the genetic code carried by mRNA.
Transformation: A process by which the genetic material carried by an individual cell is altered by incorporation of exogenous DNA into its genome.
Translation: The process in which the genetic code carried by mRNA directs the synthesis of proteins from amino acids. Compare transcription.
tRNA: See transfer RNA.

U

Uracil: A nitrogenous base normally found in RNA but not DNA; uracil is capable of forming a base pair with adenine.

V

Vector: See cloning vector.
Virus: A noncellular biological entity that can reproduce only within a host cell. Viruses consist of nucleic acid covered by protein; some animal viruses are also surrounded by membrane. Inside the infected cell, the virus uses the synthetic capability of the host to produce progeny virus.
VLSI: Very large-scale integration allowing over 100,000 transistors on a chip.

Y

YAC: See yeast artificial chromosome.
Yeast artificial chromosome (YAC): A vector used to clone DNA fragments (up to 400 kb); it is constructed from the telomeric, centromeric, and replication origin sequences needed for replication in yeast cells. Compare cloning vector, cosmid.

Acronym List

AEC Atomic Energy Commission

ANL* Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL

ATCC American Type Culture Collection, Rockville, MD

BNL* Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY

CEPH Centre dEtude du Polymorphisme Humain

CRADA Cooperative Research and Development Agreement

DKFZ German Cancer Research Center

DOE Department of Energy

ERDA Energy Research and Development Administration

FCCSET Federal Coordinating Council on Science, Engineering, and Technology

GDB*+ Genome Data Base

HERAC* Health and Environmental Research Advisory Committee

HGCC* Human Genome Coordinating Committee

HGMIS* Human Genome Management Information System (ORNL)

JHU Johns Hopkins University

JITF*+ Joint Informatics Task Force

LANL* Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM

LBL* Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA

LLNL* Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA

MRC Medical Research Council (U.K.)

NAS National Academy of Sciences (U.S.)

NCHGR+ National Center for Human Genome Research

NIH+ National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

NLGLP* National Laboratory Gene Library Project (LANL, LLNL)

NRC National Research Council (NAS)

NSF National Science Foundation

OHER* Office of Health and Environmental Research

ORNL* Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN

OSTP Office of Scientific and Technology Policy (White House)

OTA Office of Technology Assessment (U.S. Congress)

PACHG+ Program Advisory Committee on the Human Genome

PNL* Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA

SBIR Small Business Innovation Research

SCC Scientific Coordinating Committee

TWAS Third World Academy of Sciences

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

HUGO Human Genome Organization (international)

*Denotes U.S. Department of Energy organizations.
+Denotes U.S. Department of Health and Human Services organizations.

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